Western Leadership Styles on the Mission Field: an historical survey with a focus on the "Great Century" and the modern world – preliminary reflections Dr. Warren R. Beattie, OMF International Introduction In a very recent book on the "missional leader," Alan Roxburgh looks at church leadership in terms of the following two main contrasting categories. The descriptions are slightly altered for the sake of clarity. Roxburgh categories draw on earlier work by Guder and his colleagues which we will consider below (Guder, 1998). 1) The first category is the modern dynamic leaders described in terms of three further styles. The leader is a person who is make things happen (the leader as entrepreneur); the leader directs like-minded religious groups (the leader as facilitator); the leader is a kind of therapist for the church (the leader as caregiver). 2) The second category offers a very different kind of description. Here the leader is described as follows: "schooled in the practice of catechesis, confession, hospitality to the stranger; forgiveness andshaping life as a Eucharistic community" (Roxburgh and Romanuk, 2006, 123). Roxburgh goes on to describe the second kind of leader as one who "forms a community" –a community that has a collective theological life, where there are relationships based on the common ground of the kingdom of God. Roxburgh recognizes the context of the modern world in the way he describes the contemporary setting of mission and the need for leaders who are able to lead in a time of "discontinuous change." However, Roxburgh suggest that this second kind of leader seems to be rare in the modern church. Alan Roxburgh is pointing out to us two aspects of Christian leadership that are probably held in tension in the modern world. On the one hand are the modern "managerial" or "organizational" dimensions of mission); on the other hand are the more traditional elements of Christian leadership that have to do with the spiritual leadership of the church. Historical influences on Western leadership styles Roxburgh’s analysis seemed to me to point out an important tension that Christians face in today’s world. Theyapproach leadership through a number of filters. Before starting to think about historical and western styles of leadership, it is helpful to consider how our thinking about leadership is shaped by our standpoint as Christians and as modern people. There are two "extreme"sets of influencesto consider – the first are the influences from the biblical period (the filter of theology) and the second is the influences from the modern period (the filter of western leadership theory). These two sets of influences are so pervasive on both western and international Christian leaders and their thinking about leadership, that we need to briefly consider their content. The biblical period and leadership My attention was drawn to the importance of the biblical period, through an article considering leadership in Hispanic church in the United States. It sets out a biblical view of the leader in the church and in mission in terms of Paul’s instructions for church leaders. Agosto describes Paul’s perspective of leadership in terms of the "call to ministry", the exhortation to "imitate" Paul the apostle, the concepts of power in weakness, Paul’s theologia crucis and the place of spiritual gifts for service (Agosto, 1993, 9-11). Other elements of Paul’s view of leadership can be found in the pastoral epistles(1 Timothy, 2 Timothy and Titus): these focus on the characteristic of leaders; elsewhere as in Ephesians 4 he looks at categories of ministry and leaders. There are other models of leadership in the bible: the example of Jesus and the influence of his ideas on servant leadership are particularly significant models of leadership such as Moses and David and so on but we will focus on Paul’s teaching because of its relevance for leadership in the church and mission. Given the influence of Paul’s teaching on leadership in the church, either viewed in outward "missionary"terms or in more settled "church" terms. (Agosto’s discussion of the cultural implications of Paul’s teaching for the Hispanic church reminding us of the need for cultural transposition of leadership values across cultures). The modern period and leadership The other filter that we have to consider as Christians in the modern period is the influence of leadership theory and how it shapes the way many of us think about leadership. I am grateful to Dr. Shelley Trebesch (Director for Member Development at OMF International) whose work is in the field of Organizational Development for helpful advice on literatureand concepts in this area. Consider the example of Walter Bennis, one very famous "secular" writer on leadership theory, who has been involved in educational leadership in practical ways (Bennis, 1992). Bennis’ theoretical framework looks at the following elements: the process of becoming a leader; how leaders lead; the role of organizations in developing leaders. The key quality of a leader is "…concern with guiding purpose, an overarching vision, supplemented with passion with integrity, curiosity and daring. The business of leadership is about making their vision or aim real in an organization as they shape its "culture." His second area pursues aspects of character - constancy, congruity, reliability, and integrity. The third area looks at how groups can develop leaders (Adair, 2004, 251). There is quite a striking correspondence between such a view of leadership and a much more overtly "Christian perspective" on leadership seen in terms of Walter Wright’s discussion of relational leadership. Leadership is "a relationship of influence" it is about vision and hope; it involves character and trust; it’s about relationships and power; it’s about dependency and accountability (Wright, 2000, 13-17). Although Wright’s book is about relational and to some extent servant leadership (and is based, somewhat loosely on leadership as found in the book of Jude) there is a strong overlap with more "secular"theories of leadership. Indeed in the later sections of the book, Wright describes in very effective terms ways to implement "vision" within the Christian organization. To say this is not to criticize Wright, but simply to point out the extent to which informed theologically trained Christian authors, use language of leadership which is very similar at many points to secular thinking. Wright’s theological and leadership credentials are not in doubt: he has a doctorate in New Testament and was President of Regent College, Vancouver and a senior leader at Fuller School of Intercultural Studies, California. To be fair, there are more sophisticated perspectives on Christian leadership which look closely at leadership and its key elements such as the forms of leadership and the processes of leadership (cf. Banks and Ledbetter, 2004, 55ff). They look at more directly theological approaches to leadership in terms of those that include Christ-centred, Trinitarian and life-story approaches. These have a more nuanced and more decisively Christian content (Banks and Ledbetter, 2004, 79-92.) Concepts of faithfulness, integrity and service emerge as important in this kind of reflection. If there is a connection between secular thinking on leadership and Christian writing on leadership, there is also a link the other way round. Connections can be made between biblicalconcepts of leadership in terms of service and the relational dimensions of leadership in the writing of modern thinkers on leadership. This would be evident where leadership is seen as influencing followers through aheightened awareness of people ("emotional intelligence") as well as simply the exercise of power (Banks and Ledbetter, 2004, 126). Two important modern writers who explore these themes are Goleman and Jim Collins. Goleman bases much of his thinking around the importance of emotional intelligence (Goleman, 20002, 95ff.) This involves how we handle ourselves in relation to others. Emotional intelligence includes various aspects of our personalities: self-control, zeal, persistence and how we handle motivation(Adair, 2004, 254). The importance of these qualities are that they help us to handle other people and to work in team contexts. On the basis of extensive empirical research on "successful companies," Collins explores the qualities of leaders in high-achieving organizations. He notes the importance of "quiet leadership"using the idea of 5 levels of which the most important is personal humility and professional will (Collins, 2001). As we look at the kinds of categories used in the western world, we can see the ways in which our thinking about leadership is shaped by our environments. I want to turn now to two key summary articles about leadership in mission and how they help us to think about what is important. Two summary articles and their agenda in relation to leadership There are two summary articles that deal with the theme of leadership in mission which have an emphasis on western missionaries. These are both found in encyclopaedias of mission and represent a survey of leadership issues written in the modern period and reflecting backwards on history and issues (McConnell, in Moreau, 2000; Jongeneel, 1997). Key periods and some key concepts The first by McConnell looks at the history of the church and helpfully suggests contours or periods of the mission movement, mixed in with issues at various stages. Key periods are the early church with its focus on the emerging leadership of the church and concepts of leaders as apostle, (and we could add as "episkopos" and "presbyter") then the medieval period with the rise of monastic leadership. In the wake of the Reformation came the renewal movements such as the Moravians; then the rise of the Voluntary Societies in the time of the great century. These latter periods saw the rise of lay leadership with figures like Carey and von Zinzendorf and the rise of women in mission. In the later periods came the issues of the need for local leaders and local churches and the issues of indigeneity and the transfer of powerto mission churches. These issues were accompanied by the need for a growing need for theological education which broke the mould of the western theological seminary or academy (cf. Satyavrata, 2004). There was a growing awareness that leadership styles are influenced by culture and that leaders as people are culturally shaped and determined and that leading across culture raises new issues (cf. Trompenaars, 1993). In his historical assessment of leadership, Jongeneel finds that there are a number of works written in the early 20th century that look back to the 19th century to the Great Century of mission. He notes the ambivalence of one work which talks of missionaries as leaders (1915) whilst another looks at missionaries as saints (1923) – perhaps suggesting this inherent tension between the missionary as manager and missionary as spiritual leader (Jongeneel, 1997, 157-171). The church and leadership – offices in the churchand spiritual gifts Jongeneel also notes (following Warneck) the distinction between missionary ministry (where every office in the church has a missionary dimension) and the place of leadership in mission as the exercise of leadership skills in ministry rather than mission viewed in terms of the exercise of charisma (Jongeneel, 1997, 158). Another way to look at this is the different functions of the missionary as leader in different areas: in the spiritual realm and preaching – with the missionary as pastor in the practical realm of organizing churches – the missionary as leader in the social realm, caring for schools, medical missions and literature – the missionary as manager (166). These "tags" are mine: they show the kinds of issues with which Jongeneel is wrestling. Leadership in other spheres Jongeneel notes that there are two categories of leadership which need special attention –the place of lay leaders in the leadership of the church; the place of women in the leadership of missions and the church. Key lay leaders would include people like Zinzendorf, Carey from earlier generations and those like Mott in the 20th century. Women came to new prominence in the 19th century and early 20th century and it is suggested by the historian Pierce Beaver, that in terms of western women like Americans, Protestant women functioned as the "first feminist movement in North America" in the 19th century (163). Important examples include two boards like the Women’s Board of Foreign Missions; Women’s Missionary Union. A British example would be the non- denominational Society for Promoting Female Education in the East (SPFEE) founded at a meeting of St. John’s Church, Bedford Row in July 1834. See V. Griffiths. "Not Many Mighty" Mission Round Table: The Occasional Bulletin of Mission Research, Dec 2007 (forthcoming) Jongeneel notes the importance too of indigenous leaders with mention of people like Nehemiah Goreh (from India.) Given the content of these two articles and my own bibliographical research on this topic, I would suggest that we look at the following headings: a) The periods of the mission movement Discussion of the early church and reformation is limited and has been put in Appendix 1 along with a section on missionary scholars from the "Great Century." b) three important categories of leadership - the missionary as mission or church leader (manager); the missionary as spiritual leader (pastor); c) the missionary as an enabling leader of the indigenous church (catalyst). The category of manager would focus on areas like organization and vision; pastor on teaching and spirituality; catalyst on indigeneity in the indigenous church and theological education and the transfer of power. Historical perspectives – "the great century" The compendium by offers an historical analysis of a number of key people in the great century (Anderson and Coote, 1994). The analysis in this section draws heavily on this volume –but its multi-authorial perspective makes it a rich source of ideas on leadership and other themes about mission history. A number of different kinds of missionary will be surveyed –some in traditional church work, some in administration and some in more theological roles. This will allow a consideration of different kinds of "leadership styles" in relation to important concepts. Missionary Visionaries China – John Nevius 1829 – 1893 Leader as pastor, administrator and theological educator Nevius’ministry began in Chefoo in Shantung province (1861), continued with theological teaching at Hanchow (1869) and led finally to itinerant ministry (1872 to 1881). His ministry focussed on churches, their management and the development of pastoral care and evangelism (Hunt, in Anderson and Coote, 1994, 192). Leadership and mission Nevius was given an opportunity to speak on his missionary methods in the general missionary conference of 1889 in Shanghai. This is where he shared his concepts of mission: "Personal evangelism; Self-propagation; Self-Government; Self-support; Systematic bible study; strict discipline; Co-operation; non-interference in lawsuits; general helpfulness in economic life." Nevius distinguished between the work of the missionary as preaching the gospel and the pastoral work of the leader who was concerned with the "administration and discipline of churches" (194). Indigeneity Nevius’ major contribution was his concern to help hand over the work of the church in the hands of local people. He distinguished between "paid native agency" and native help which was independent (that is - not funded from outside). Nevius emphasized training in local situations and keeping people in their natural setting (194). There was a stress on discipline for the church which formed part of his plan of itineration for leaders. At the end of his efforts, it would seem that there was an overlap of the work of creating independence for the church with missionaries still involved in leading substantial areas of the work (195). China - Hudson Taylor, 1832-1905 Leadership and Vision Taylor’s approach to mission in 1866 of sending ordinary people into Inland China was more visionary than managerial. His contribution was remarkable – some 1400 missionaries and 100,000 people in churches by the early 190ss were partly the "result, under God, of one man’s vision and passion" (Kane in Anderson and Coote, 1994, 198). We should note, however that Taylor’s independent leadership, came from his experience in an apparently poorly organized mission the China Evangelization Society, and after he had tried to be accepted by a number of other mission organizations (197-198). Leader as Manager Taylor developed the "Principles and policies" of the China Inland Mission (CIM), variant forms of which are still in use (in today’s world) He reflected a policy-driven style of leadership (198). He seems to have been a competent practical leader – he was described as "a good administrator, ran a tight ship, and almost single-handedly opened China to the gospel" (200). Taylor encouraged leading from the centre of action. The CIM headquarters were in Shanghaiand the leaders were people who had experience of mission. The CIM and later OMF International have maintained this tradition to the present. Although it was noted that: "A weakness of this arrangement was the failure to recruit Chinese leaders to serve on the directorate." Two other features of Taylor’s leadership style were his conciliatory approach to local people as evidenced by his desire to avoid compensation at the time of the Boxer Rebellion and his encouragement of the participation of women in mission (201). Servant leadership Taylor was a strong-minded leader but he passed on leadership to his successor D.E. Hoste and the organization continued its work. Although Taylor was a strong leader,where necessary he saw the importance of a servant spirit. The CIM under Taylor was described as a large "international, heterogeneous group of active, strong-minded missionaries" their ability to get along was seen as a "tribute to the wise, gentle, but forceful leadership of Hudson Taylor" (198-200) Once when Introduced as "illustrious guest" in Australia, Taylor responded as follows, "Dear friends, I am the little servant of an illustrious master." Glasser’ summary seems a balanced assessment - "He was ambitious without being proud, biblical without being bigoted, Catholic without being superficial… He was charismatic without being selfish (202)." Administrators American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, United States – Rufus Anderson, 1796-1880 Anderson’s work was based largely in the United States although he did travel to other regions such as India and Syria. He had intended to work in India, but his gifts of administration were felt to be too significant to lose him from Boston! Leader as Manager Anderson worked essentially as a manager and he helped to form policy and brought together "the roles of administrator and theoretician" (Beaver, in Anderson and Coote, 1994, 549.) He himself had strong views on the role of missionaries. "The missionary is not to be a ruler or pastor but an evangelist… hastens on …leaving the local church under a native pastor and in full Christian liberty to manage its own affairs. The school, seminary and other institutions exist only to build up the local churches" (550). Indigeneity Anderson’s view of Paul’s leadership was that he spread the good news and then made efforts to "gather converts into churches at centers of influence, and putting them under native pastoral inspection and care…" (550). From this can be seen his strong interest in thenative church and the idea that "… missions are instituted for the spread of a scriptural, self-propagating Christianity." Beaver observes that "Native church and ministry form the keystone of Anderson’s theoretical system. That church is not to be an endin itself, a self-contained institution but one more unit in an ever-growing and expanding world-wide mission." Mission needs to result in forms of Christianity that will spread itself. Despite his own leadership style he gave some freedom to the local church even where the missionary organizes polity – the local church would be free to change itif they so wished. Despite Anderson’s achievements, Beaver notes, in summary, that indigeneity can be viewed through the lens of the interpreter – "mission executives…stressed self-support; national church leaders emphasized self-government; and too few put self-propagation in the first place that Anderson awarded it" (552). Once again, there were limits to the accomplishments of Anderson in the sphere of indigeneity. Church Missionary Society, United Kingdom - Henry Venn, 1796 - 1873 Henry Venn was another missionary leader whose work lay largely as manager. He was an administrator with the Church Missionary Society present at the original meeting in 1799 secretary from 1841 (Shenk in Anderson and Coote, 1994, 543). Leader as Manager Venn’s gifts lay in management rather than in preaching (a gift that earlier generations of his family were to use. It has been said that "He exerted leadership in the committee room and through administrative initiative." His significant abilities in this regard are evidenced by his appointment by the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to Chair two separate Royal Commissions, a distinguished invitation even allowing for his representative position on behalf of Evangelicals in the Anglican church. Venn also promoted education and economic development; and took an active stand against the slave trade (543-4). Indigeneity Venn was conscious of gaps in the understanding of mission and recognized the importance of developing "missionary principles" (544). His own contribution lay in the development of the three self principles – 1) the church looking to itself for leadership; for finance; "the final test of the integrity of the life of a church is its readiness to evangelize and extend itself" (545). For suggestions as to whether Venn or Anderson developed the Three-self policy see Shenk’s articles cited in (Shenk in Anderson and Coote, 1994, 546.) Venn talked of church and mission in terms of the metaphor of edifice and scaffolding (545). This brought criticism from Stephen Neill for having too dichotomous a view of church and mission (Shenk, 1993, 106). Shenk considers that Neill overstates Venn’s position in that mission structures were to be taken away, primarily so that churches could express their identity and move on to "regions beyond." This was move was facilitated by training members of local churches to be missionaries. Venn’s encouragement of Crowther to be appointed to mission work in Yorubaland was an example of this. The Anglican church did not just follow this policy in Africa. The later appointment of V.S. Azariah in India was another significant example of Anglican confidence in Christian leadership across the globe. A Church of Scotland minister is quoted as saying "The Anglican Church has done some big and brave things in India, but among the biggest and bravest I would rank the appointment of Vedanayakam Samuel Azariah as Bishop of Dornakal." (Graham, in Anderson and Coote, 1994, 326). .Indigenous leaders – Venn and the African Experience For Venn, self- propagating was the acid test of the new church. Venn was concerned about over-rootedness (the mission station); about dependency; and about racism. As a result, Venn pushed the idea of indigenous bishops in Africa in the 1850s particularly in relation to Samuel Crowther (Shenk, 1983, 108) Venn exerted significant influence to have Samuel Crowther appointed as an African Bishop. Although there were some anomalies in his appointment – it was to a mission setting rather than an established church – it did prove a significant move in terms of the indigeneity of the African church. Peter Williams summarizes this period pointing out that "the period under study did not produce in CMS missions a Church which was self-governing with its own indigenous episcopate" … Its failure, though serious , can be overstated. It was possibly less than that of any other English missionary body"(Williams, 1990, 259). Williams says this was because there were over 420 indigenous ministers in the period following 1910 and 3 African bishops; and this did "represent a confidence in native capacity" which was greater than other missions. Williams notes too that the failure of indigeneity was influenced by attitudes of local Christians as well as those in the Anglican church; there were, for example, some in India did not want to cut their links with the western church for a variety of reasons (261). Historical perspectives – the 20thcentury Missional church and leadership In the modern period, discussion of leadership often has its focus on key relationships. The leaders of the mission and the local churches; the development of leaders of local churches in relation to international people and the development of leadership within the national church. See the bibliography for more details on this. The concept of "missional church" within North American contexts, is an area where there is significant discussion of "mission leadership" from a western viewpoint. This is not the primary focus that wemight have wished for in our treatment of the theme of mission - we might have preffered discussion of leadership in relation to cross-cultural missions from the west. In the apparent absence of such analysis, the theme of "missional church" does give some helpful pointers about modern western thinking about leadership and about western contexts. In a comprehensive study of the idea of the "missional church," Guder and his colleagues note the way in which theology of mission has shifted its focus from a church-centred view of mission to a God-centred view of mission with missio dei (Guder, 1998, 4). Such a view of mission is Trinitarian. It centres on the God’s initiatie; it recognizes that "Jesus led the disciples into the ways of God’s reign…" and it sees in Ephesians 4, the holy spirit’s role in "calling leaders into the church" (Guder, 1998, 113). This represents an important shift of understanding in terms of the focus of God’s mission. Mission does not just involve the founding and management of the church; rather the church’s role is to be a missionary church and to engage in missionary outreach to the societies in which the church finds itself. Guder notes the shift of emphasis that is required moving from "Christendom contexts" to the "modern context" but their response tries to maintain an interest in working through the existing church in mission. There is recognition that mission or missiology is not part of the core curriculum of the modern church and that this needs to be urgently addressed (Guder, 1998,7) Part of the consequence of this is the realization that "neither the structure nor the theology of our established church is missional." In this case, theology shapes leadership. Missional leadership is required to "form and equip a people who demonstrate and announce the purpose and direction of God through Jesus Christ." Theological leadership is turned in a practical direction: "to create a people whose life is witness to Jesus Christ" (Guder, 1998, 183). It also draws on the eschatological visions of the church found, for example in Revelation, suggesting that "missional leaders are to form a people shaped by this vision (Guder, 1998, 186). In a section entitled, "The Context of Leadership – Priest, Pedagogue, Professional" Guder suggests these three categories of leadershipas important for the history of the church Priest – stresses the liturgical leadership (in the early church); pedagogue – stresses the ministry of the word (as in the time of the reformation); professional –this is viewed in terms of several categories, counsellor, manager and technician (all associated with the church in the modern world) - and we could add that they have their associated styles of leadership! These categories are related to the periods of the early church, reformation, and the modern world. Like my own classification, this is perhaps a little too simplistic, but it does remind us how historical periods and their theological concerns shape leadership (Guder, 1998, 190ff.) Missional church leadership as the formation of a community The concept that leadership needs to focus on is that of covenant community. Leadership is "a way of leading is required that takes seriously the creation of a covenant community." This is more nuanced than leadership simply focussing on evangelism as just "recruitment" as in some contemporary models of the church (Guder, 1994, 204-208). The formation of the community requires theological and missiological understanding which is applied to the development of pastoral skills. It is suggested that "new forms of church" involve a greater activity than managing the contemporary church rather "… missional leadership will require skills in evoking a language about the church that reshapes its understanding of its purpose and practices" (Guder, 1994, 214.) Such a model offers an integration of different aspects of leadership and recognizes that current ministry and missional leadership may not adequately address these issues. This model has an interest in earlier community-based models that look at discipleship in ways that include learning and the context of communities. Wesley and Bonhoeffer are seen as important historical examples. It looks favourably at Newbigin’s assessment that leadership is "to lead the congregation as a whole in mission to the community as a whole, to claim its public life, as well as the lives of all its people, for God’s rule." (Guder, 1994, 218-219). The models offersa description of the leadership of a covenant community (kingdom) from the world (not of it) but in the world and needs to shape the world through its collective life. The modern world as the context for the missional church Roxburgh’s work (mentioned earlier) tries to make this theological understanding of leadership more practical and apply it to the particular context of the modern world. Leadership in the modern world is challenging because of its characteristics. The traditional pastoral model is one of "maintenance" rather than one of dealing with change. However, the modern world is characterized by being a period of change as "discontinuous change" It recognizes that there are diverse "forces" that push "organization into reactive zone…" so the need is for leaders who can create space for their organizations to set their direction (Roxburgh, 2006, 4-7, 106ff). The "missional leader" takes the 21st century concept of "missional ecclesiology" and tries to articulate what it would mean in the everyday life of the church. Roxburgh compares the standard skills of pastoral ministry, with the new skills that are required to "cultivate an environment for missional transformation…" (Roxburgh, 2006, 11-13). Roxburgh has developed a chart to help with this – it compares traditional pastoral values with the new set of skills required (Roxburgh, 2006, 12-13). The modern leader needs to combine "personal leadership attributes and missional readiness factors."This involves developing a balance between the skills of a) cultivating people b) forming a missional environment and congregations and c) engaging contexts. This results in leadership in the modern context dealing with the following areas of church life – developing "missional imagination" encouraging spiritual growth through "Christian practices" helping Christians to understand "multiple changes" and developing "coalitions of interest"within the church to facilitate its mission (Roxburgh, 2006, 114- 123). Missional leaders forming missional communities This model of leadership is based on the idea that leaders create a spiritual community that has inner and outer dimensions. This means that people are formed in a way of life that also has inner and outer dimensions. Asian evangelical leaders also tend to put a stress on this outward dimension of leadersrhip. See (Yung, 2004) and (Beattie, 2006). Such a view of leadership involves the creation of a team for its development. It moves beyond a "sola pastora" method of operating. Pastors need to be part of a team who learn to create missional disciplines that will help the church with its reformed life in the modern world. It would have to be said that although the bible is at the centre of this scheme and despite its credible theological foundations, the scheme appears to have quite "managerial" dimensions for its engagement (Guder, 2004, 118, 150ff., 180, 190-191, 200-202). Reflections on the concepts of leadership in this survey One of the helpful contributions made by Roxburgh’s analysis is to show that leadership depends on "purpose" – it has this critical theological dimension. Leadership is essentially about participating in God’s formation of a community with a Christian character whose lives are shaped by their beliefs. Its values are not measured by numerical factors or similar business measures. The mission leader as pastor and the mission leader as manager We need, then, to think about leadership in terms of spiritual dimensions rather than simply the modern professional or managerial categories.Roxburgh notes that this change of focus is partly a shift from the time of the church as a "missional community" in the early church "forming a new society in the world," to the settled character of the church in Christendom with a different styles of leading "oversight of orthodoxy."There is a contrast of the two tasks of leadership a "theological wrestling with question of how to form a people into an alternative community" and "helping seekers belong in a congregation without expectations or demands on their lives…" (Roxburgh, 2006, 117-119). The leader needs to move between the inner and outer worlds; indeed, the leader needs to develop his own leadership skills in both of these worlds to form a community.The leader needs to connect the different dimensions of leadership –personal spirituality (private inner world); personal character of leader (spiritual life and ethics); and good leadership technique (the concrete historical world that we make through our actions) (Roxburgh, 2006, 121). Such a view offers a synthesis of some of two of the core categories of the leader that we have seen throughout our study. The Mission leader as Catalyst Culture and leadership One of the themes that we need to think about in any discussion of western leadership styles is the impact of culture on leadership. The issue of culture and leadership is raised by McConnell in his article. "Churches that grow out of mission societies struggle with the issues of Culture and leadership. …Often misunderstandings arise between the local community and the mission and church, based on the lack of credible models within the culture, coupled with the external resources proved by the missions." (McConnell, In Moreau, 2000, 566) Related to this is the issue of how churches in non-western cultures have developed leadership styles that fit with their own cultural frameworks. Agoso’s discussion of Hispanic leadership and the way it favours more egalitarian forms leadership in relation to Paul’s theology of leadership shows how theological models allow scope for adjustment in specific cultural contexts (Agosto, 2003.)Given the widespread influence of western models of leadership, western ideas and western patterns of education, the impact of western thinking on other forms of cultural leadership this challenge remains. Indigenous leadership in the church and in mission organizations Indigeneity and leadership have been surveyed historically in terms of indigenous leadership in the church in relation to Venn, and to others. See also the discussion in Flemming in relation to India in the 19th century. (Flemming, 1916, 106ff.) Western leaders of mission have made serious contributions to the way in which leadership has been passed on to local churches, although the historical record is not without setbacks. Even in the modern world there are challenges, as for example, in relation to non-western participation in international missions organizations. There is concern about the space for multi-cultural (as opposed to indigenous leadership) in modern missions (cf. David Lee quoted in Beattie, 1998, 67). Gordon Loux complains about the the lack of indigenous leaders, in the sense of multicultural leaders in international organizations, in the modern era!) He encourages mission organizations to think globally rather than nationally. He suggests that there could be greater representation of the multicultural nature of the United States in the North American missionary movement itself (Loux, 1991, 405-407). This is an issue thathas been faced by international missions since the 1960s as they have internationalized. There are possible differences of emphasis between the western and modern Asian movements. One important aspect of Taylor’s leadership style in moving the headquarters of his mission to Asia, was that the "directorate" was entirely drawn from a missionary community of experienced missionaries. In today’s Asian context, with its hierarchical social structures, there has been a tendency to "leaders who do not have cross-cultural missionary experience seem to be widespread within the teaching and administration"of non-western missions. This can be explained, for example by Confucian cultures which prize education, and which put an emphasis on age and ascribed status rather than experience. This does raise questions about the kind of informed leadership which directs modern non-western leadership of missions (Beattie, 1998, 63). Indigeneous leaders and theological education Another issue facing non-western missions and churches is the dominance of "global education" with its roots in the enlightenment academic tradition and the "European university model" This is felt to be an important factor in India where some are trying to move away from "residential institution based methods" (Satyavrata, 2004, 215). At the same time,some in the west are trying to recover community. This indicates the importance of relating to different cultural contexts – in the one they take people away from their community; in the other they create a more intimate context for theological education The implications of the survey for leadership development in the modern world Various suggestions are made about how leadership can be enhanced in the modern context. Roxburgh and Guder look at the skill set needed to understand and respond to the modern world and to form the Christian community for discipleship and witness in this context. Robert Clinton advocatesthe need for training and preparing missionaries in a three-fold scheme: pre-field and missionary training; member care and nurture; leader development. This approach termed "leadership emergence theory"seeks to have roots that are connected to the bible and to missiology. As a method it "suggestive not determinative"and it attempts to offer leaders "a vantage point" for understanding their task (Clinton, 1998, 80-81). In an article with Korea as its focus, Hwa Yung has looked at some of the changes that are required for the Korean church. Given the problems of "decline" which he assesses in terms of Hong Yong Ki’s categories, Yung suggests that there is a need to handle theological categories and the need "to train leaders to think contextually in theology and ministry." He emphasizes the need for contextual apologetics and ethics. Like Roxburgh, he tries to approach development for leadership through the existing pastoral staff but suggests the need to focus "on leadership in the mid and later stages of leadership; scholars and programmes that really shape professional training…" In saying that there is a need to develop leadership for wider society as well as the church he is pointing in a similar direction to Roxburgh. Yung sees the need to have an "impact for moral and social leadership in 21st century" (Yung, 2004, 235). It would seem the concept of training and leadership will need to change if we are to achieve these aims. The need to develop "missional imagination" is the pressing task of the hour. Conclusion This survey has shown that there are a number of influences on the understandings of leadership in the western world. The bible gives models of leadership which deal with the roles of leaders and the style of leadership. From the early church through to the reformation and beyond these models have affected how Western Christians view leadership in the church and in missions. The Great Century saw the rise of missions and the growth of categories of leaders – some went to work with localchurches in evangelism and pastoral work; some were involved in administration; others engaged in theological education and scholarship. In these different roles leaders shared their vision and contributed to the growth of the church through mission. Vision was developed and communicated in a variety of ways. The era of missions in the 19th century and into the 20th century brought into sharp focus the need for leaders to shape and refine their models of leadership in relation to new contexts and cultural understandings of leadership. This era also led to a greater appreciation of the need for leadership in church and missions to extend beyond the western members of the missionary movement to the local Christian communities. The process of developing a multi-cultural church with multi-cultural leadership continues to the present. In recent years, there has been a growing awareness of the need to balance the demands of the spiritual and administrative or managerial aspects of leadership in new ways. This has been forced on the church by the character of the modern world with its constant character of change and, particularly in the west, the new environment for mission that exists in the post-christendom world. Leaders need to balance spiritual, pastoral and other skills and to develop them in relation to the Christian community in fresh ways. They are helped in this task by the emergence of the global Christian community who can share its insights on the task and challenges of leadership from other contexts. Christian leaders need to be aware of these historical trends and to understand leadership theoryin theological categories as well as in its own terms. The legacy of history teaches us several lessons: - the importance of balancing different aspects of the ministerial role – pastor, manager, enabler - the need to develop multi-cultural leadership for the church - the need to develop leaders who are capable of reading the signs of the times and of developing the "skill-sets" necessary to bring about change in the church and through the church’s mission to the wider world. Future Research This study has been of a rather preliminary nature. There is a need for further researchin terms of the understanding of leadership styles from the point of view of organizational culture and theology. This would include a critique of the categorisation of manager, pastor, catalyst (priest, pedagogue, professional). A more sophisticated grid could be developed to analyze western styles; consideration of how this relates to Asian and other styles would be an important part of future research. There are a number of important historical articles in the bibliography list which can help us to shed light on leadership in the past. In particular the discussion on lay leaders and of the role of women in leadership would need to be enhanced (See McConnell, Moreau, 2000; Jongeneel, 1997, 162- 165). Bibliography History of western mission leadership - critique McConnell, Douglas. 2000. "Leadership" in, Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions. Ed. Scott Moreau. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, p.565-567. Jongeneel, Jan A.B. 1997. Philosophy, Science and Theology of Mission in the 19th and 20thCenturies: A Missiological Encyclopedia. Part 2: Missionary Theology. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. History of western mission leadership – historical periods Brent, Allen. 1992. Cultural Episcopacy and Ecumenism: representative ministry in church history from the age of Ignatius of Antioch to the Reformation.Leiden: Brill. [Early church – Reformation] Anderson, Gerald et al (eds.) 1994. Mission Legacies: Biographical Study of Leaders of the Modern Missionary movement. Orbis. [1700s/ 1800s / 1900s] Shenk, W. 1983. Henry Venn – Missionary Statesman. Orbis. [1800s] Williams, C. Peter. 1990. The ideal of the self-governing church: a study in Victorian Missionary Strategy. Leiden: Brill. [1800s; includes Venn] Fleming, D.J. 1916. Devolution in Mission Administration. N.Y.: Revell.[1800s – 1916] Pierard, Richard V. 1998. ‘Evangelical and ecumenical: missionary leaders in mainline Protestantism, 1900-1950’ In, Re-forming the center American Protestantism, 1900 to the present, edited by Douglas Jacobsen and William Vance Trollinger, Jr., p. 150-171. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. [1900- 1950] History of western mission leadership - modern Roxburgh, Alan J. and Fred Romanuk. 2006. The missional leader: equipping your church to reach a changing world.1st ed.San Francisco, CA : Jossey-Bass. Roxburgh, Alan J. 1997. The missionary congregation, leadership and liminality: Christian mission and modern culture. Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity Press International. Guder Darrell L (ed.) 1998. Missional church: a vision for the sending of the church in North America. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Gelder.Craig Van (ed.) 2007. The missional church in context: helping congregations develop contextual ministry.Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. Leadership theory - modern Overviews of modern thinking Banks and Ledbetter. 2004. Reviewing Leadership: a Christian Evaluation of current approaches. Grand Rapids: BakerAcademic. Mouw and Jacobsen. 2006. Traditions in Leadership: How faith Traditions shape the way we lead. Pasaden, CA: De Pree Leadership Center. Adair, J and Nelson, J. 2004. Creative church leadership. Norwich: Canterbury Press. Hybels, Bill. 1996. ‘25 best books on leadership.’Evangelical Missions Quarterly, 32 no 4 Oct p 505. Empowering leadership Bennis, Walter. 1992. On becoming a leader. Century Business. Collins, Jim. 2001. Good to great. N.Y.: Collins. Emotional Intelligence Goleman, D. 2002. Primal Leadership: learning to lead with emotional intelligence. Harvard: Harvard Business School. Goleman, D. 1995. Emotional intelligence. NY: Bantam Books. Leadership Hesselbein, F. (ed). 1996. Leader of the future. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass (Wiley). Trompenaars, F. 1993. Riding the waves of global culture. London: Nota Bene. Non-western church leadership, mission leadership and leadership development, Mission Leadership Beattie, W.R. 1998. "OMF International: Internationalization and interactions with the Korean Missionary Movement." Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of Edinburgh. Beattie, W. R. 2006. "Transformational missiology: an emerging trend in evangelical missiology in Asia – an analysis with reference to selected writers." Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of Edinburgh. Lane, Denis. 1990. Tuning God’s new instruments. Singapore: WEA/ OMF. Loux, Gordon D. 1991. ‘It's time for a "new world order" in missions leadership.’ Evangelical MissionsQuarterly, 27 no 4 Oct, p 402-408. Hwa, Yung. 2004. ‘Some challenges for leadership development for mission in east Asia.’ Transformation, 21 no 4 Oct, p 234-237. [East Asia] Lam, Edwin. 2006. "The daunting task of the mission leader." In Missions Matrix. Ed. Florence Tan, Singapore: SBC. p. 75-102. [Singapore] Fernando, Ajith. 2001. "Sri Lankan leader eyes partnerships" Evangelical Missions Quarterly 37 (3): 312-314. [Sri Lanka] Satyavrata, Ivan. 2004. ‘'Globalization' and leadership development for transforming mission in India.’ Transformation, 21 no 4 Oct p 211-217. [India] Laing, Mark T.B. 2004. (ed.) Leadership and mission: papers from the 9th CMS consultation. Delhi: CMS/ISPCK. [India] Church leadership Winter, Ralph D. 2003. ‘The largest stumbling block to leadership development in the global church.’ International Journal of Frontier Missions, 20 no 3 Jul-Sept, p 86-94. Stamoolis, James J. 2001. ‘How are we doing at developing national leaders? Evangelical MissionsQuarterly, 37 no 4 Oct, p 488-495. Clinton, Bobby 1998. ‘Leadership development movement spreading.’ Evangelical Missions Quarterly, 34 no 1 Jan, p 80-81. Specific countries - Mission Verstraelen-Gilhuis, G. 1982. From Dutch Mission Church to Reformed Church in Zambia. The scope for African Leadership and initiative in the history of a Zambian mission church. Franeker, Netherlands: T. Wever. [Zambia] Daniel, J.T.K. 2005. World Evangelization and Christian leadership. Festschrift in honour of Samuel T. Kamalesan. Delhi: ISPCK. [India] Specific countries - Church Agosto, Efraín. 1993. ‘Paul, Leadership, and the Hispanic Church. By: Urban Mission, 10 Jl, p 6-20. [USA/ Hispanic culture] Harris, Mark J. 2003. ‘Pitfalls of Western-created leadership training in Russia. International Journal of Frontier Missions, 20 no 3 Jl-S p 82-85. [Russia] Marantika, Chris 1986. ‘An Indonesian leader speaks to the church in the West.’ Evangelical Missions Quarterly 22 (1), 6-11. [Indonesia] Appendix 1 – extra material on historical periods Historical perspectives – early church / reformation Materials on the early periods of the church have been difficult to find: what follows are some brief reflections on materials that have been reviewed. Early church One book deals with this period but is written from an Anglican (Episcopal perspective) in the context of ethnic groups such as the Aboriginal peoples of Australia and Maoris of New Zealand and others desiring "bishops who will reflect their own cultural and historical traditions, regardless of the particular "See" in which they are living" (Brent, 1992, 1-2). This could have parelles with the associations of Chinese or Korean churches in the U.S.A. and their leadership – indicating the importance of culture and leadership.Brent looks at the nature of episcopacy in the early church from the time of Ignatius of Antioch and the following periods. There was a concern with the continuation of the apostolic ministry through the offices of bishops, presbyters and deacons (69). This led to a discussion of the role of the bishop and the character of his representation of the apostolic tradition (looking backwards) and its relationship to other forms of office and to cultural regions (looking forwards). This shows the determining nature of the biblical model (see the earlier section) and the impact of theology and culture on leadership. Brent’s view is that the doctrine of the church led to the appointment of bishops for the sake of representing the growth of "cultural self-identity" of various peoples …" and that the bishop is to be viewed "as representative of the tradition [apostolic], incarnated in the various forms… of culture…" (211). On the basis of the evidence, he is in fact sympathetic to the idea of culturally determined episcopates in the Anglican church (198-207). Medieval church and Reformation A modern collection of leadership in church traditions looks briefly at leadership in the monastic tradition and the reformed church (O’Keefe; Mouw in Mouw, 2006). The perspectives are a synthesis of more recent views rather than an assessment in terms of historical periods. O’Keefe looks at the tradition of the Benedictine Abbot as he tries to hold in tension ideas of "tradition and change" (O’Keefe in Mouw, 99) in the midst of the other tension of administering and pasturing. Abott maintains the peace of the monastery. The Abbot is viewed as shepherd, as steward of spiritual and material resources; and as father and as teacher (102-3); his leadership is to "preserve" the past and be an "innovator to the future"(105). Mouw uses a 19th century example rather than a medieval one but the tradition remains from the past. In terms of the Reformation, Mouw looks at the theological model of the three-fold office of Christ, as prophet, priest and king. He considers ways in which different aspects of this model apply to leadership. His most extensive example is the 19thcentury Dutch leader Abraham Kuyper and again is looking at concepts viewed across history rather than an analysis of an historical period itself (Mouw in Mouw, 2006). Although the book’s approach is largely one of synthesis across historical periods, it does offer important analyses on leadership in different church traditions. Historical perspectives – the great century Missionary Scholars India- William Carey – 1761- 1834 Carey’s background of work in the United Kingdom embraced practical work as an artisan, and then church and mission work before joining the emerging missions movement of the Baptist Church. Servant Leadership Like Taylor, Carey has a strong sense of the need to be a servant of Jesus Christ. The slogan on his grave was "A guilty, weak and helpless worm, on thy kind arms I fall. Be thou my strength and righteousness My Jesus and my all"(Smith, in Anderson and Coote, 1994, 245). It is pointed out that this was entirely fitting given his Calvinist theology! Leadership and Vision Despite his contribution to mission in India, much of his life was lived doing scholarly work privately and in the setting of college life. He was seen in the public mind as a "catalyst" but "he was much more a mission motivator and Bible translator in the heart of India – or a mission strategist" 249. His vision was communicated largely through his writings. The first example of this would be his famous document written in 1792, "An Enquiry into the obligations of Christians…"His life’s work consisted of the dissemination of the Christian message through bible translation and his teaching. It has been suggested that the slogan he developed in the U.K. "Expect great things; attempt great things" rather than the detail of his "Enquiry" really summed up his practical approach to mission (249). In management terms the "Enquiry’s" principles were not largely followed! Indigeneity Although Carey’s translation work was highly significant it led to limitations of missionary work. By setting up a school and becoming teachers, the missionaries were assigned a professional identity ("sahibs, rather than sadhus") and mixed with higher social classes rather than having an indigenous identity in relation to the "grassroots" (249). Leadership and Theological education It was in "Bible translation and college tutoring"that Carey work, with a team of others who gave him space from "most mission management and outreach responsibilities". His own comment on this was that his colleague Marshman carried out the real work – "In point of zeal he {Marshman} is Luther; I am Erasmus." This suggests that Carey was "a low-key leader…"with "two stalwart co-directors and a team of pandits" (248). India – T.N. Farquhar – 1861 - 1929 Leadership and scholarship Another important example of a missionary whose work lay in the realm of scholarship was T. N. Farquhar. He has been described as an excellent example of the "missionary as scholar". This is a positive description it is "… not to devalue his very great importance as a missionary leader; after all he taught the missionary corps virtually single-handed the need for sympathetic and positive evaluation of the Indian cultural and religious heritage." Farquhar’s work is a reminder that each successive generation of missionaries needs to engage with the issues of how to deal with religion and culture in relation to the transmission of Christian faith (Sharpe, in Anderson and Coote, 1994, 295). China – Roland Allen, 1868 - 1947 Leader as pastor Allen enjoyed a brief career as a missionary. He joined the North China mission in 1895, was home on furlough in 1901 following the events of the Boxer Rebellion; he returned to China in 1902 but on account of a breakdown in health he was sent home. He continued to work as an Anglican vicar but in 1907 resigned on a matter of conscience (Long and Rowthorn, in Anderson and Coote, 1994, 383-384). Indigeneity Allen was extremely concerned about the indigeneity of the church and during his years of self-imposed retirement from ministry wrote some profound reflections on mission and indigenous ministry David Paton has summarized Allen’s principles as follows: the new Christian community needed to interpret itself the key resources of the church –the bible, the creed, ministry and the sacraments; the community and its leader (bishop) need to draw on the church those who can minister the word and sacraments and offer pastoral care; the community needs to share its faith with those around it; the Holy Spirit will direct the community’s leaders; a Christian community ready to direct its own life is a church (otherwise it remains a mission field); the leader (bishop) and his team are "crucial, both for oversight and to serve as visible links for the church) (385). "Allen took seriously what we would callthe cultural and historical context for the preaching of the gospel and the priority that was needed to be given to developing an indigenous and self-reliant church from its very beginning"(385). His work has had a significant influence on mission thinking since the 1950s. He himself apparently predicted that no-one would really adopt his ideas till about 1960! Appendix 2 – Bibliography for further research History of western mission leadership - critique Sugden, Chris. ‘Mission leadership and Christian theological research.’ Evangelical Review of Theology, 28 no 3 July 2004, p 232-246. History of western mission leadership - modern Elmer, Duane H. and Lois McKinney (eds.) With an eye on the future: development and mission in the 21st century: essays in honor of Ted W. Ward. Monrovia, Calif.: MARC, c1996. Taylor, William D. Taylor. (Ed.) Too valuable to lose: exploring the causes and cures of missionary attrition Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, c1997. Finney, John, Church on the move: leadership for mission. London: Daybreak, 1992. Historical articles & books - mission leadership Historical - Western Fraser, A. H. L. ‘Leadership in the mission field. International Review of Missions Jan 1918: 74-83. White, J. Campbell. Missions and leadership. Wooster, Ohio: The Collier printing company, 1915. Speer, Robert. Studies of missionary leadership. Philadelphia, 1914. Winslow, J.C. "Not leaders but saints and servants." IRM, XII 1923, p434-440. Historical - Asian Paul, K. T. Indian leadership in mission and Church. Calcutta: National Council, 1918. [India] Laubach, Frank Charles. The people of the Philippines, their religious progress and preparation for spiritual leadership in the Far East.New York, George H. Doran company, 1925. [Philippines] Spiritual Leadership Oswald Sanders. Spiritual Leadership. Chicago: Moody Press, 1967. Hwa Yung. "Servant Leadership."Unpublished Lectures delivered at St. Andrew’s Cathedral, Singapore, September 2005. Non-western church leadership, mission leadership and leadership development, Specific countries - Mission Hong Young Gi. "Dynamism and Dilemma."Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. University of South Wales. 2006. [South Korea] Nam, Hoo-Soo Jose. Missions strategies of Korean Presbyterian missionaries in central and southern Philippines : in light of Paul's missions strategies.Cheltenham, Pa. : Hermit Kingdom Press, 2006. [South Korea] Specific countries – Church Te Paa, Jenny. ‘Leadership formation for a new world: an emergent indigenous Anglican theological college.’ Beyond colonial Anglicanism, eds. Ian T. Douglas, and Kwok Pui-lan (eds.) p 270-296. New York: Church Pub, 2001. [International; ?Polynesian] Genheimer, Ron W. The selection and development of field leaders in the Africa Evangelical Fellowship[microform] / by Ronald Genheimer. 1996, 149 leaves ; 29 cm. [Africa] Kollamparampil, Thomas (ed. et al.) Christian leadership and integration: festschrift in honour of Prof. Dr. Thomas Aykara on the occasion of his saptati and the golden jubilee of his first religious profession. Bangalore : Dharmaram Publications, 2007. [India] Lange, Raeburn. Island ministers: indigenous leadership in nineteenth century Pacific Islands ChristianityChristchurch, N.Z. : Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies, University of Canterbury ; Canberra : Pandanus Books, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, the Australian National University, c2005. [Polynesia] | 
